Connectionism

Connectionism is a term used to discuss how knowledge is constructed in the brain in the form of massively interconnected sub-networks that store information that can be accessed by other sub-networks (Waring). It is appealing because it assumes that we learn by trail and error in successive steps, incrementally and through exposure to input. This results in strengthening or weakening interconnections. It is always changing because as new information is added new interconnections are made. Usually the connectionist idea is related to second language learning on the lower-level of cognition, such as vocabulary acquisition.
As a teacher, I can use this concept to keep in mind connecting previous material to current, new ideas when teaching so the interconnections can be strong. I want my students to move the knowledge from their working memory to their long-term memory so it can be retrieved for use later. This adds a new dimension to teaching because it means there needs to be many visuals during lessons and good vocal modeling because the more the senses are involved the more likely they will remember the information. After learning about the variety of theories that are applied to language learning, I have come to realize that maybe it's taking the most attractive aspects of each and combining and manipulating them to fit the needs of the students present.

Pidgins and Creoles

After reading about Pidgins and Creoles, I thought about the similarities it has with interlanguage. First of all, an interlanguage is no one's native language, like pidgins. Everyone is going to construct a one of a kind interlanguage based on their hold of the two languages in between. Interlanguage users are bilinguals since they have an L1 in place and additionally this interlanguage, emerging 2nd language. The pidgin phenomenon came about when people were transplanted from their homes, much like some kids or language learners in some cases. Also, the article discussed that in order for the creole-speakers to change their speech patterns there needs to be sufficient social mobility to motivate them. This can be compared to the environment in which a speaker using an interlanguage, for example a classroom. If the classroom does not provide opportunities to further learning and progress toward the target language, then there will be no movement and fossilization could set in. I find that the similarities help me connect the characteristics of pidgins and creoles to interlanguage.

Ch. 9

The beginning of this chapter discussed the history of cross-linguistic influences and the language learner. The first hypothesis to come about in this area is the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH). This hypothesis claimed that, "the principal barrier to 2nd language acquisition is 1st language interference and that a scientific analysis of the 2 languages in question enable the prediction of difficulties a learner will encounter." This was manipulated and a strong version and weak version were established. Then came the Cross-Linguistic Influence (CLI) that replaced CAH. This hypothesis claimed that, "recognizing the significance of the role of the 1st language in learning a second language, but with an emphasis on the facilitating and interfering effects both languages have on each other."

Seeing the progression of ideas in this area made me realize that it's no wonder so many ELL students drop out of school. Teachers have a hard time keeping up with new research and concepts, therefore, are not necessarily implementing strategies that could help keep these students in school. For example, understanding that an ELL has an interlanguage that has a structurally intermediate status between the native and the target language will help teachers to not focus on every mistake that a learner makes. In other words, pick your battles because it can be easy to feel overwhelmed when learning a new language. When teachers have an understanding of typical additions, omissions, substitutions, and ordering errors, the direction of instruction can adapt and be modified to help overcome those errors. Finally, using effective feedback will help move the learner in the right direction and help prevent fossilization because the learner will continue to be motivated to learn.

Hawkins Article

The Hawkins article we read for this week discusses the Universal Grammar approach in relation to L1 vs. L2 acquisition. There is nothing to say that, “SLA research should not assume that L2 grammars are the product of the innate language faculty (353, Hawkins).” Many studies suggest that, “L2 learners’ mental representations are UG-derived (353).” This must lead to other questions though since there is not a solution to this debate.
I think that one of the biggest problems I find when reading various articles about SLA is it gets lumped in with L1 acquisition and as we can tell from this author there are distinct and obvious differences between L1 and L2. What it comes down to, in my opinion, is we need to look beyond the theories of L1 acquisition and start new research on SLA. Researchers seem to get sucked back into L1 research when researching SLA.

Ch. 4 Response

Human learning is a very interesting topic whether you are a teacher or not. For me, thinking about the various theories regarding learning, then applying them specifically to second language acquisition versus general classroom learning is interesting. First of all, this chapter states that, "You must have a comprehensive knowledge of the entry behavior of a person, of objectives you wish to reach , of possible methods that follow from your understanding of the first two factors, and of an evaluation procedure (Brown, 87)." From that one can apply various techniques or theories to accomplish the learning task. Pavlov believed that the learning process was made up of stimuli and reflexive responses. One would condition the learner to respond to a stimuli. Skinner introduced the concept of a reinforcer. A reinforcer followed a response to indicate to the learner the behavior was good and to get the reinforcer again the learner would probably demonstrate the behavior again. On a different level, Ausubel believed that learning occurred when new events connected to preexisting events. They would build upon each other. This leads into rote learning and meaningful learning. Rote learning is storing items that are not related to preexisting events. Usually they do not get stored for a great length of time. Meaningful learning occurs when new events interact with preexisting events and build upon each other. The book states that, "Any learning situation can be meaningful if (1) learners have a meaningful learning set - that is, a disposition to relate the new learning task to what they already know - and (2) the learning task itself is potentially meaningful to the learners - that is, relatable to the learners' structure of knowledge (92)."

The chapter goes on to discuss the relationship between languages and learning, but the parts mentioned above are of particular interest to me. As teachers, we have these learning theories that we can manipulate to fit particular situations. I really like the idea of reinforcing good "behavior', in this case, language learning. As a teacher that will work with ELLs, I think that it is important to reinforce the progress made each day, but not in the form of something tangible per se. It would be more beneficial (and idealistic), I think, to show how grasping the language step-by-step improves everyday life. For example, if an ELL does not know how to become involved in a game on the playground due to a communication barrier, work with words that would apply to this situation: "May I join?", "What are the rules?", etc. Now, the child is equipped with tools to join the game and that in itself is a reward, therefore, reinforced the desire to learn new words/phrases and use them.  

How a teacher teaches these language skills is so important. Too often, rote learning is observed in classrooms. If any learning situation can become meaningful, and we know that meaningful learning will more likely than not be stored in the long term memory then why not make learning situations meaningful? Using the example above, I would not have the child simply memorize the vocabulary words or how to ask a question. I would expand the question formation to other aspects that the child is interested in. For example, children have to ask questions all the time: "may I use the bathroom?", "may I have borrow your crayon?", etc. It meets a need they have. in many language textbooks they have example that don't usually fall into everyday conversations among kids. If the examples are more useful, it seems they would be more meaningful. Once they understand the question formation to ask questions they use frequently then it can be connected to asking questions about other things that might not be asked as much. Lessons need to build on one another, too. It's not difficult to create a themed unit. For example, in the regular classroom with a high population of ELLs, a teacher can use a themed unit on leaves for example. Each subject: science, reading, writing, social studies, and math can have leaves as a theme easily. Then they are exposed to the same words frequently and there are connections made among the subjects. I think that rote learning is necessary for phone numbers and whatnot, but not for learning a language.  

Ch 3 Response

Chapter 3 discussed the theory of a critical period one has in order to acquire a language with ease. Along with the critical period the idea of lateralization was brought up. The question still remains does language fall in the right hemisphere of the brain or the left? Evidence leans towards left, but there is conflicting evidence that exists. To add to the mix, the predicament of whether an accent is important in determining whether a second language has truly been acquired. Each of these topics are parts of the whole that are studied to determine the big picture of second language acquisition. The starting point goes back to basic human cognitive development. Many theorists have put in their two cents on the matter. Piaget created a series of developmental levels, which indicate that there is a critical stage for developing a second language. Other theorists have stated their theories as well, some would agree and other would not. Therefore, the debate continues. Another dimension of second language acquisition is the affective considerations. Children have certain characteristics generally speaking across the board that affect the development of language. Due to this nature, a new language does not invoke the same "threat" that it can in adults. Another aspect that is very important to take note of is the linguistic considerations when introducing a second language. There are certain aspects of language that span across all languages. For example, there is usually a pattern all language learners follow when developing language skills. No matter what the first language is, and no matter what the second language is, acquisition will not occur with only one dimension explored. Everyone needs frequent practice, constant input and the opportunity to provide output. There are many strategies teachers can implement in the classroom that provide the opportunity to learn and use a new language. 

In my personal experience, I feel that there is a critical period for learning a second language with greater ease. I think that children and adults can both acquire a second language, but the paths taken to get to that point will differ between the two groups. When I was younger I was exposed to Spanish on a once  week basis. I remember not having to work hard to remember what I had been taught. I still remember the vocabulary and phrases I learned. For about 6 years I was not exposed to any Spanish at all. Then came high school Spanish class. I still remembered what I had learned at a younger age, but learning new material was very hard. I struggled for the next 6 years with learning Spanish. I was not given the opportunities to use the language. For example, I would have to fill out worksheets with vocabulary words or conjugate verbs. Where was the listening or speaking parts of this experience? No where to be found. Therefore, to this day I can read and write in Spanish, but ask me a question and I might not understand it, nor would I have the capabilities to respond without writing out my answer first. I had to use different mechanisms to learn the vocabulary and verbs than I did when I was younger. I created flashcards and wrote words over and over again. It was purely memorization. I know that I did not do that when I was young, but I don't know for sure what I did. In conclusion, I feel that had I continued my Spanish without the break I would be in a different place with it now. The reality now is I would have to resort to different learning strategies to continue learning Spanish if I so chose to and the acquisition process will be more difficult because it would require more work on my part.